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PRECISION 8 BIT ADC (AVR 401)

                                    ;**** A P P L I C A T I O N   N O T E   A V R 4 0 1 ************************
                                    ;* 
                                    ;* Title:		8-bit precision A/D converter
                                    ;* Version:		1.03
                                    ;* Last Updated:	97.07.17
                                    ;* Target:		AT90Sxxxx (All AVR Devices with analog comparator)
                                    ;*
                                    ;* Support E-mail:	avr@atmel.com
                                    ;*
                                    ;* DESCRIPTION
                                    ;* This Application note shows how to perform dual-slope-alike
                                    ;* A/D conversion utilizing the on-chip analog comparator and a few
                                    ;* external components. Included is a test program that performs
                                    ;* conversions in a eternal loop, outputting the result to eight LEDs.
                                    ;* 
                                    ;***************************************************************************
                                    
                                    ;***** Registers used by mpy9u multiplication routine
                                    
                                    .def	mc9u	=r0	;multiplicand used by multiplication routine
                                    .def	mp9u	=r1	;multiplier used by multiplication routine
                                    .def	m9uL	=r1	;result Low byte
                                    .def	m9uH	=r2	;result High byte
                                    
                                    ;***** Registers used by div17u division routine
                                    
                                    .def	didL	=r1	;Dividend
                                    .def	didH	=r2
                                    .def	dresL	=r1	;Holds the result of the division
                                    .def	dresH	=r2
                                    .def	divL	=r3	;Divisor
                                    .def	divH	=r4
                                    .def	remL	=r5	;Reminder variables used by division routine
                                    .def	remH	=r6
                                    
                                    .def	TinH	=r14	;Time to reach input voltage
                                    .def	TinL	=r15
                                    .def	Tref	=r16	;Time to reach reference voltage
                                    .def	TH	=r17	;Timer variable
                                    
                                    .def	Vref	=r18	;Computed Vref
                                    
                                    .def	temp	=r19
                                    .def	temp2	=r20
                                    
                                    
                                    ;Port B pins
                                    .equ	AIN0	=0
                                    .equ	AIN1	=1
                                    .equ	Ref1	=2
                                    .equ	Ref2	=3
                                    .equ	LED	=4
                                    .equ	T	=7
                                    
                                    .equ	PRESC	=2	;Timer clocked at CK/8
                                    .equ	VrefAddr=0	;EEPROM Address holding Vref
                                    
                                    
                                    .include "1200def.inc"
                                    
                                    .cseg
                                    .org 0
                                    		rjmp reset		;Reset handler
                                    		reti		
                                    
                                    .org OVF0addr
                                    ;** Timer/counter 0 overflow interrupt ******************************
                                    T0_int:		inc TH			;Increase timer high-byte
                                    		reti
                                    
                                    
                                    ;*** Reset handler **************************************************
                                    reset:		sbi DDRB,LED		;PB4 and
                                    		ser temp		;Port D as output, used to
                                    		out DDRD,temp		;drive LEDs
                                    
                                    		ldi temp,(1< multiplier
                                    		ldi temp,128		;128  -> multiplicand ( = 2.5 volts)
                                    		mov mc9u,temp
                                    		rcall mpy9u		;Tref x 128
                                    
                                    		clr divH		;(Tref x 128)
                                    		mov divL,TinL		; -----------
                                    		rcall div17u		;    Tcal
                                    
                                    		ldi temp,VrefAddr	;Store Vref
                                    		out EEAR,temp
                                    		out EEDR,dresL
                                    		sbi EECR,EEWE
                                    
                                    calibrate1:	sbic EECR,EEWE
                                    		rjmp calibrate1
                                    
                                    
                                    
                                    ;Main program
                                    main:		cbi PORTB,T		;Turn off pull-up on T-pin
                                    
                                    		ldi temp,VrefAddr	;Read Vref from EEPROM
                                    		out EEAR,temp
                                    		sbi EECR,EERE
                                    		in Vref,EEDR
                                    
                                    
                                    loop:		rcall reference		;Measure Tref
                                    		rcall delay		;A small delay to let
                                    					;     the capacitor discharge,
                                    		rcall input		;Measure Tin
                                    
                                    		brts error		;If Vin > Vcc
                                    		
                                    
                                    calc:		lsr TinH                ;TinH -> C (multiplier)
                                    		mov mp9u,TinL           ;TinL -> multiplier
                                    		mov mc9u,Vref           ;Tref -> multiplicand
                                    		rcall mpy9u             ;Tin x Tref
                                    
                                    		clr divH                ;(Tin x Vref)
                                    		mov divL,Tref           ;------------
                                    		rcall div17u            ;    Tref
                                    
                                    		tst dresH
                                    		breq write
                                    
                                    error:		ldi temp,255		;	Vin = 255
                                    		mov dresL,temp
                                    
                                    
                                    write:		com dresL		;Show the value on the LEDs
                                    		rcall long_delay
                                    		rcall long_delay
                                    		rcall long_delay
                                    
                                    		out PORTD,dresL
                                    		rol dresL
                                    		brcs wr1
                                    		cbi PORTB,LED
                                    		rjmp loop
                                    
                                    wr1:		sbi PORTB,LED
                                    		rjmp loop
                                    
                                    ;*** Subroutine delay ******************************************************
                                    delay:		ldi temp,$FF
                                    d1:		dec temp
                                    		brne d1
                                    		ret
                                    
                                    
                                    long_delay:	ser temp2
                                    ld1:		rcall delay
                                    		dec temp2
                                    		brne ld1
                                    		ret
                                    
                                    
                                    ;*** Subroutine reference **************************************************
                                    ;* Measures Tref
                                    
                                    reference:	sbi DDRB,AIN0		;Discharge the capacitor
                                    
                                    		sbi DDRB,Ref1		;Turn on Vref
                                    		sbi PORTB,Ref1		
                                    		sbi DDRB,Ref2
                                    
                                    		rcall delay		;Let the capacitor discharge completely
                                    
                                    		clr TH			;Reset timer
                                    		out TCNT0,TH
                                    
                                    		cbi DDRB,AIN0		;AIN0 as input
                                    
                                    		ldi temp,PRESC		;Start timer
                                    		out TCCR0,temp
                                    
                                    		sbi DDRB,T		;Turn on the transistor
                                    
                                    
                                    ref_wait:	sbic ACSR,ACO 		;If Capacitor voltage > reference voltage
                                    		rjmp ref_ok		;	conversion conplete
                                    		cpi TH,1		;Continue if timer overflow
                                    		brlo ref_wait
                                    
                                    ref_ok:		in Tref,TCNT0		;Store Tref
                                    
                                    		clr temp		;Stop timer
                                    		out TCCR0,temp
                                    
                                    		cbi DDRB,T		;Turn off transistor
                                    		sbi DDRB,AIN0		;Discharge capacitor
                                    
                                    		cbi PORTB,Ref1		;Turn off Vref
                                    		cbi DDRB,Ref1		
                                    		cbi DDRB,Ref2
                                    
                                    		ret
                                    
                                    
                                    
                                    
                                    ;*** subroutine input **************************************************
                                    ;* Measures Tin
                                    ;* Returns with the T-flag set if timer overflow (i.e. Vin > Vcc)
                                    
                                    input:		cbi DDRB,AIN0		;Tri-state AIN0
                                    
                                    		clt			;Clear error flag
                                    		clr TH			;Clear timer
                                    		out TCNT0,TH
                                    
                                    		ldi temp,PRESC		;Start timer
                                    		out TCCR0,temp
                                    
                                    		sbi DDRB,T		;Turn on transistor
                                    
                                    input_wait:	sbic ACSR,ACO 		;If Capacitor voltage > Vin
                                    		rjmp input_ok		;	charging complete
                                    		cpi TH,2
                                    		brlo input_wait
                                    		set			;T=1 indicates Vin > Vcc
                                    
                                    input_ok:	in TinL,TCNT0		;Store Tin
                                    		mov TinH,TH
                                    
                                    input_exit:	clr temp		;Stop timer
                                    		out TCCR0,temp
                                    
                                    		cbi DDRB,T		;Turn off transistor
                                    		sbi DDRB,AIN0		;Discharge capacitor
                                    
                                    		ret
                                    
                                    
                                    
                                    ;********************************************************************
                                    ;*
                                    ;* This routine divides a 17 bit number (carry:didH:didLL) on
                                    ;* a 16 bit number (divH:divL). 
                                    ;* The result is placed in (dresH:dresL)
                                    ;*
                                    ;* The carry flag must contain the 17th bit of the divident before
                                    ;* the routine is executed.
                                    ;*
                                    ;* The routine is based on the div16u - 16/16 Bit Unsigned Division
                                    ;* routine found in the avr200.asm application note file
                                    ;*
                                    ;********************************************************************
                                    
                                    
                                    div17u:		clr remL		;clear remainder Low byte
                                    		clr remH		;clear remainder High byte
                                    		ldi temp,17		;init loop counter
                                    
                                    d17u_1:		rol remL		;shift dividend into remainder
                                    		rol remH
                                    		sub remL,divL	;remainder = remainder - divisor
                                    		sbc remH,divH	;
                                    		brcc d17u_2		;if result negative
                                    		add remL,divL	;    restore remainder
                                    		adc remH,divH
                                    		clc			;    clear carry to be shifted into result
                                    		rjmp d17u_3		;else
                                    
                                    d17u_2:		sec
                                    d17u_3:		rol didL		;shift left dividend
                                    		rol didH
                                    		dec temp		;decrement counter
                                    		brne d17u_1		;if done
                                    		ret			;    return with value in didL
                                    
                                    
                                    
                                    ;***************************************************************************
                                    ;*
                                    ;* "mpy9u" - 9x8 Bit Unsigned Multiplication
                                    ;*
                                    ;* This subroutine multiplies the two register variables (carry:mp9u) and mc9u.
                                    ;* The result is placed (carry:m8uH:m8uL)
                                    ;*  
                                    ;* Number of words	:11 (return included)
                                    ;* Number of cycles	:   (return included)
                                    ;* Low registers used	:3 (mp9u,mc9/m9uL,m9uH)	
                                    ;* High registers used  :1 (temp)
                                    ;*
                                    ;* Note: Result Low byte and the multiplier share the same register.
                                    ;* This causes the multiplier to be overwritten by the result.
                                    ;*
                                    ;***************************************************************************
                                    
                                    mpy9u:		clr m9uH		;clear result High byte
                                    		ldi temp,9		;init loop counter
                                    		ror mp9u
                                    
                                    m9u_1:		brcc m9u_2		;if bit 0 of multiplier set
                                    		add m9uH,mc9u		;    add multiplicand to result High byte
                                    
                                    m9u_2:		dec temp		;decrement loop counter
                                    		brne m9u_3		;if not done, loop more
                                    		ret
                                    
                                    m9u_3:		ror m9uH		;shift right result High byte 
                                    		ror m9uL		;rotate right result L byte and multiplier
                                    		rjmp m9u_1
                                    
                                    
                                    
                                    
                                 

Programming the AVR Microcontrollers in Assember Machine Language

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Atmel AVR From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Avr) Jump to: navigation, search The AVRs are a family of RISC microcontrollers from Atmel. Their internal architecture was conceived by two students: Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH] and further developed at Atmel Norway, a subsidiary founded by the two architects. Atmel recently released the Atmel AVR32 line of microcontrollers. These are 32-bit RISC devices featuring SIMD and DSP instructions, along with many additional features for audio and video processing, intended to compete with ARM based processors. Note that the use of "AVR" in this article refers to the 8-bit RISC line of Atmel AVR Microcontrollers. The acronym AVR has been reported to stand for Advanced Virtual RISC. It's also rumoured to stand for the company's founders: Alf and Vegard, who are evasive when questioned about it. Contents [hide] 1 Device Overview 1.1 Program Memory 1.2 Data Memory and Registers 1.3 EEPROM 1.4 Program Execution 1.5 Speed 2 Development 3 Features 4 Footnotes 5 See also 6 External Links 6.1 Atmel Official Links 6.2 AVR Forums & Discussion Groups 6.3 Machine Language Development 6.4 C Language Development 6.5 BASIC & Other AVR Languages 6.6 AVR Butterfly Specific 6.7 Other AVR Links [edit] Device Overview The AVR is a Harvard architecture machine with programs and data stored and addressed separately. Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single die, removing the need for external memory (though still available on some devices). [edit] Program Memory Program instructions are stored in semi-permanent Flash memory. Each instruction for the AVR line is either 16 or 32 bits in length. The Flash memory is addressed using 16 bit word sizes. The size of the program memory is indicated in the naming of the device itself. For instance, the ATmega64x line has 64Kbytes of Flash. Almost all AVR devices are self-programmable. [edit] Data Memory and Registers The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM. The AVRs have thirty-two single-byte registers and are classified as 8-bit RISC devices. The working registers are mapped in as the first thirty-two memory spaces (000016-001F16) followed by the 64 I/O registers (002016-005F16). The actual usable RAM starts after both these sections (address 006016). (Note that the I/O register space may be larger on some more extensive devices, in which case memory mapped I/O registers will occupy a portion of the SRAM.) Even though there are separate addressing schemes and optimized opcodes for register file and I/O register access, all can still be addressed and manipulated as if they were in SRAM. [edit] EEPROM Almost all devices have on-die EEPROM. This is most often used for long-term parameter storage to be retrieved even after cycling the power of the device. [edit] Program Execution Atmel's AVRs have a single level pipeline design. The next machine instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take just one or two clock cycles, making AVRs relatively fast among the eight-bit microcontrollers. The AVR family of processors were designed for the efficient execution of compiled C code. The AVR instruction set is more orthogonal than most eight-bit microcontrollers, however, it is not completely regular: Pointer registers X, Y, and Z have addressing capabilities that are different from each other. Register locations R0 to R15 have different addressing capabilities than register locations R16 to R31. I/O ports 0 to 31 have different addressing capabilities than I/O ports 32 to 63. CLR affects flags, while SER does not, even though they are complementary instructions. CLR set all bits to zero and SER sets them to one. (Note though, that neither CLR nor SER are native instructions. Instead CLR is syntactic sugar for [produces the same machine code as] EOR R,R while SER is syntactic sugar for LDI R,$FF. Math operations such as EOR modify flags while moves/loads/stores/branches such as LDI do not.) [edit] Speed The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0-16MHz, with some devices reaching 20MHz. Lower powered operation usually requires a reduced clock speed. All AVRs feature an on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or resonator circuitry. Because many operations on the AVR are single cycle, the AVR can achieve up to 1MIPS per MHz. [edit] Development AVRs have a large following due to the free and inexpensive development tools available, including reasonably priced development boards and free development software. The AVRs are marketed under various names that share the same basic core but with different peripheral and memory combinations. Some models (notably, the ATmega range) have additional instructions to make arithmetic faster. Compatibility amongst chips is fairly good. See external links for sites relating to AVR development. [edit] Features Current AVRs offer a wide range of features: RISC Core Running Many Single Cycle Instructions Multifunction, Bi-directional I/O Ports with Internal, Configurable Pull-up Resistors Multiple Internal Oscillators Internal, Self-Programmable Instruction Flash Memory up to 256K In-System Programmable using ICSP, JTAG, or High Voltage methods Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits for Protection Internal Data EEPROM up to 4KB Internal SRAM up to 8K 8-Bit and 16-Bit Timers PWM Channels & dead time generator Lighting (PWM Specific) Controller models Dedicated I²C Compatible Two-Wire Interface (TWI) Synchronous/Asynchronous Serial Peripherals (UART/USART) (As used with RS-232,RS-485, and more) Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) CAN Controller Support USB Controller Support Proper High-speed hardware & Hub controller with embedded AVR. Also freely available low-speed (HID) software emulation Ethernet Controller Support Universal Serial Interface (USI) for Two or Three-Wire Synchronous Data Transfer Analog Comparators LCD Controller Support 10-Bit A/D Converters, with multiplex of up to 16 channels Brownout Detection Watchdog Timer (WDT) Low-voltage Devices Operating Down to 1.8v Multiple Power-Saving Sleep Modes picoPower Devices Atmel AVR assembler programming language Atmel AVR machine programming language Atmel AVR From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Avr) Jump to: navigation, search The AVRs are a family of RISC microcontrollers from Atmel. Their internal architecture was conceived by two students: Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH] and further developed at Atmel Norway, a subsidiary founded by the two architects. Atmel recently released the Atmel AVR32 line of microcontrollers. These are 32-bit RISC devices featuring SIMD and DSP instructions, along with many additional features for audio and video processing, intended to compete with ARM based processors. Note that the use of "AVR" in this article refers to the 8-bit RISC line of Atmel AVR Microcontrollers. The acronym AVR has been reported to stand for Advanced Virtual RISC. It's also rumoured to stand for the company's founders: Alf and Vegard, who are evasive when questioned about it. Contents [hide] 1 Device Overview 1.1 Program Memory 1.2 Data Memory and Registers 1.3 EEPROM 1.4 Program Execution 1.5 Speed 2 Development 3 Features 4 Footnotes 5 See also 6 External Links 6.1 Atmel Official Links 6.2 AVR Forums & Discussion Groups 6.3 Machine Language Development 6.4 C Language Development 6.5 BASIC & Other AVR Languages 6.6 AVR Butterfly Specific 6.7 Other AVR Links [edit] Device Overview The AVR is a Harvard architecture machine with programs and data stored and addressed separately. Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single die, removing the need for external memory (though still available on some devices). [edit] Program Memory Program instructions are stored in semi-permanent Flash memory. Each instruction for the AVR line is either 16 or 32 bits in length. The Flash memory is addressed using 16 bit word sizes. The size of the program memory is indicated in the naming of the device itself. For instance, the ATmega64x line has 64Kbytes of Flash. Almost all AVR devices are self-programmable. [edit] Data Memory and Registers The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM. The AVRs have thirty-two single-byte registers and are classified as 8-bit RISC devices. The working registers are mapped in as the first thirty-two memory spaces (000016-001F16) followed by the 64 I/O registers (002016-005F16). The actual usable RAM starts after both these sections (address 006016). (Note that the I/O register space may be larger on some more extensive devices, in which case memory mapped I/O registers will occupy a portion of the SRAM.) Even though there are separate addressing schemes and optimized opcodes for register file and I/O register access, all can still be addressed and manipulated as if they were in SRAM. [edit] EEPROM Almost all devices have on-die EEPROM. This is most often used for long-term parameter storage to be retrieved even after cycling the power of the device. [edit] Program Execution Atmel's AVRs have a single level pipeline design. The next machine instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take just one or two clock cycles, making AVRs relatively fast among the eight-bit microcontrollers. The AVR family of processors were designed for the efficient execution of compiled C code. The AVR instruction set is more orthogonal than most eight-bit microcontrollers, however, it is not completely regular: Pointer registers X, Y, and Z have addressing capabilities that are different from each other. Register locations R0 to R15 have different addressing capabilities than register locations R16 to R31. I/O ports 0 to 31 have different addressing capabilities than I/O ports 32 to 63. CLR affects flags, while SER does not, even though they are complementary instructions. CLR set all bits to zero and SER sets them to one. (Note though, that neither CLR nor SER are native instructions. Instead CLR is syntactic sugar for [produces the same machine code as] EOR R,R while SER is syntactic sugar for LDI R,$FF. Math operations such as EOR modify flags while moves/loads/stores/branches such as LDI do not.) [edit] Speed The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0-16MHz, with some devices reaching 20MHz. Lower powered operation usually requires a reduced clock speed. All AVRs feature an on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or resonator circuitry. Because many operations on the AVR are single cycle, the AVR can achieve up to 1MIPS per MHz. [edit] Development AVRs have a large following due to the free and inexpensive development tools available, including reasonably priced development boards and free development software. The AVRs are marketed under various names that share the same basic core but with different peripheral and memory combinations. Some models (notably, the ATmega range) have additional instructions to make arithmetic faster. Compatibility amongst chips is fairly good. See external links for sites relating to AVR development. [edit] Features Current AVRs offer a wide range of features: RISC Core Running Many Single Cycle Instructions Multifunction, Bi-directional I/O Ports with Internal, Configurable Pull-up Resistors Multiple Internal Oscillators Internal, Self-Programmable Instruction Flash Memory up to 256K In-System Programmable using ICSP, JTAG, or High Voltage methods Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits for Protection Internal Data EEPROM up to 4KB Internal SRAM up to 8K 8-Bit and 16-Bit Timers PWM Channels & dead time generator Lighting (PWM Specific) Controller models Dedicated I²C Compatible Two-Wire Interface (TWI) Synchronous/Asynchronous Serial Peripherals (UART/USART) (As used with RS-232,RS-485, and more) Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) CAN Controller Support USB Controller Support Proper High-speed hardware & Hub controller with embedded AVR. Also freely available low-speed (HID) software emulation Ethernet Controller Support Universal Serial Interface (USI) for Two or Three-Wire Synchronous Data Transfer Analog Comparators LCD Controller Support 10-Bit A/D Converters, with multiplex of up to 16 channels Brownout Detection Watchdog Timer (WDT) Low-voltage Devices Operating Down to 1.8v Multiple Power-Saving Sleep Modes picoPower Devices Atmel AVR assembler programming language Atmel AVR machine programming language Atmel AVR From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Avr) Jump to: navigation, search The AVRs are a family of RISC microcontrollers from Atmel. Their internal architecture was conceived by two students: Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH] and further developed at Atmel Norway, a subsidiary founded by the two architects. Atmel recently released the Atmel AVR32 line of microcontrollers. These are 32-bit RISC devices featuring SIMD and DSP instructions, along with many additional features for audio and video processing, intended to compete with ARM based processors. Note that the use of "AVR" in this article refers to the 8-bit RISC line of Atmel AVR Microcontrollers. The acronym AVR has been reported to stand for Advanced Virtual RISC. It's also rumoured to stand for the company's founders: Alf and Vegard, who are evasive when questioned about it. Contents [hide] 1 Device Overview 1.1 Program Memory 1.2 Data Memory and Registers 1.3 EEPROM 1.4 Program Execution 1.5 Speed 2 Development 3 Features 4 Footnotes 5 See also 6 External Links 6.1 Atmel Official Links 6.2 AVR Forums & Discussion Groups 6.3 Machine Language Development 6.4 C Language Development 6.5 BASIC & Other AVR Languages 6.6 AVR Butterfly Specific 6.7 Other AVR Links [edit] Device Overview The AVR is a Harvard architecture machine with programs and data stored and addressed separately. Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single die, removing the need for external memory (though still available on some devices). [edit] Program Memory Program instructions are stored in semi-permanent Flash memory. Each instruction for the AVR line is either 16 or 32 bits in length. The Flash memory is addressed using 16 bit word sizes. The size of the program memory is indicated in the naming of the device itself. For instance, the ATmega64x line has 64Kbytes of Flash. Almost all AVR devices are self-programmable. [edit] Data Memory and Registers The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM. The AVRs have thirty-two single-byte registers and are classified as 8-bit RISC devices. The working registers are mapped in as the first thirty-two memory spaces (000016-001F16) followed by the 64 I/O registers (002016-005F16). The actual usable RAM starts after both these sections (address 006016). (Note that the I/O register space may be larger on some more extensive devices, in which case memory mapped I/O registers will occupy a portion of the SRAM.) Even though there are separate addressing schemes and optimized opcodes for register file and I/O register access, all can still be addressed and manipulated as if they were in SRAM. [edit] EEPROM Almost all devices have on-die EEPROM. This is most often used for long-term parameter storage to be retrieved even after cycling the power of the device. [edit] Program Execution Atmel's AVRs have a single level pipeline design. The next machine instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take just one or two clock cycles, making AVRs relatively fast among the eight-bit microcontrollers. The AVR family of processors were designed for the efficient execution of compiled C code. The AVR instruction set is more orthogonal than most eight-bit microcontrollers, however, it is not completely regular: Pointer registers X, Y, and Z have addressing capabilities that are different from each other. Register locations R0 to R15 have different addressing capabilities than register locations R16 to R31. I/O ports 0 to 31 have different addressing capabilities than I/O ports 32 to 63. CLR affects flags, while SER does not, even though they are complementary instructions. CLR set all bits to zero and SER sets them to one. (Note though, that neither CLR nor SER are native instructions. Instead CLR is syntactic sugar for [produces the same machine code as] EOR R,R while SER is syntactic sugar for LDI R,$FF. Math operations such as EOR modify flags while moves/loads/stores/branches such as LDI do not.) [edit] Speed The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0-16MHz, with some devices reaching 20MHz. Lower powered operation usually requires a reduced clock speed. All AVRs feature an on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or resonator circuitry. Because many operations on the AVR are single cycle, the AVR can achieve up to 1MIPS per MHz. [edit] Development AVRs have a large following due to the free and inexpensive development tools available, including reasonably priced development boards and free development software. The AVRs are marketed under various names that share the same basic core but with different peripheral and memory combinations. Some models (notably, the ATmega range) have additional instructions to make arithmetic faster. Compatibility amongst chips is fairly good. See external links for sites relating to AVR development. [edit] Features Current AVRs offer a wide range of features: RISC Core Running Many Single Cycle Instructions Multifunction, Bi-directional I/O Ports with Internal, Configurable Pull-up Resistors Multiple Internal Oscillators Internal, Self-Programmable Instruction Flash Memory up to 256K In-System Programmable using ICSP, JTAG, or High Voltage methods Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits for Protection Internal Data EEPROM up to 4KB Internal SRAM up to 8K 8-Bit and 16-Bit Timers PWM Channels & dead time generator Lighting (PWM Specific) Controller models Dedicated I²C Compatible Two-Wire Interface (TWI) Synchronous/Asynchronous Serial Peripherals (UART/USART) (As used with RS-232,RS-485, and more) Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) CAN Controller Support USB Controller Support Proper High-speed hardware & Hub controller with embedded AVR. Also freely available low-speed (HID) software emulation Ethernet Controller Support Universal Serial Interface (USI) for Two or Three-Wire Synchronous Data Transfer Analog Comparators LCD Controller Support 10-Bit A/D Converters, with multiplex of up to 16 channels Brownout Detection Watchdog Timer (WDT) Low-voltage Devices Operating Down to 1.8v Multiple Power-Saving Sleep Modes picoPower Devices Atmel AVR assembler programming language Atmel AVR machine programming language